Scenario
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Figure 1. Barn and Silos

Third grade students in Mrs. Maddox’s class have been studying about different types of communities for the past two weeks. Throughout this study, students have focused on distinguishing between rural, urban and suburban communities. Living in a rural community, students are familiar with large expanses of land, farms, considerable distances between houses, and lack of malls, skyscrapers and entertainment venues. In contrast with that, the students took a field trip to downtown Atlanta to experience tall buildings, public transportation, commuters, super highways, extensive shopping, sports arenas and fine arts venues. Through this trip, they came to have a better understanding of an urban community. Between the school and downtown Atlanta, students were exposed to suburban communities as the bus took them through a neighborhood and a community outside the perimeter. Students experienced rows of houses, commuters, strip malls, eating establishments, churches and parks. The students were better able to apply the knowledge of their classroom activities to the field trip and could easily determine the differences between each type of community.
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Figure 2. City and Tall Buildings

As a culminating activity for this study on types of communities, the students are going to prepare some type of individually selected project demonstrating their knowledge of urban, suburban and rural communities. Mrs. Maddox makes suggestions as to the types of projects students might consider. Some choose to write and illustrate a book, others write and perform a play, and still others film a video using footage taken from their trip. One student focuses on interviewing residents of each community.
Patrick, the computer whiz of the class, decides to prepare a PowerPoint presentation which will incorporate digital pictures taken on the field trip and of the rural areas surrounding the school community. He has successfully written the text for his slides but has been unable to insert the digital pictures from his disk. Mrs. Maddox notices that Patrick is experiencing frustration with his inability to insert the pictures. She approaches to offer help, not to complete the task for Patrick, but rather to provide support and to help him achieve his objective on his own.

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Figure 3. Computer

Mrs. Maddox thinks aloud as she offers help: “Let’s see. I want to insert a picture into the slide from the disk. I need to go to the toolbar at the top and select 'insert' since that’s what I want to do. And since it’s a picture that I want to insert, I’ll select 'picture'. Now I have to tell the computer where to find the picture I want. Since the picture is on a disk, I’ll select ‘from file’. Then I’ll click 'insert' and viola`! My picture is there. Now all I have to do is save it”. As Mrs. Maddox talks through the steps, Patrick carefully follows her prompts and completes each step. He beams as he sees the selected picture on his slide. Mrs. Maddox then teaches Patrick a chant she has composed that will assist him with the steps: “In-sert a picture from a file; locate the file and se-lect the pic; click to in-sert and save it, quick!” She watches as Patrick goes through the steps, questioning him with leading questions when he hesitates, and listens while he quietly says the chant to himself to perform the task. Again, he beams with excitement as the slide displays the selected picture. Mrs. Maddox moves away from the computer and allows Patrick to insert the next picture on his own. Seeing that he is successful, she moves on to assist another student.
Later, when another student, Melissa, needs assistance with inserting a picture to a PowerPoint slide, Mrs. Maddox asks Patrick to be a peer tutor to her. He further expands his learning by explaining the steps to Melissa and by teaching her the same chant he used to complete the steps to insert a picture in the PowerPoint slide.
Through her support and facilitation, Mrs. Maddox helped Patrick master a skill and achieve independence through carefully designed instruction called scaffolding. This process of scaffolding is much like the traditional definition of scaffolding as a temporary support system used until the task is complete and the building stands without support. Such is the concept of scaffolding. Immediate support is given to students in order to help them achieve skill or task independence. This assistance is a temporary framework provided by the teacher or a more knowledgeable person to assist students in performing a task they otherwise cannot accomplish without assistance. Support is provided to the learner and then gradually removed so that the student can become a self-regulated, independent learner. “Although the teacher assumes much of the control during scaffolded instruction, the ultimate goal of instruction is covert, independent self-regulatory learning” (Ellis et al. 1994).
[TABLE][TR] [/TR][TR][TD]Caption: In this animation, each box represents scaffolding provided by the teacher, and with each activity the level of learning goes up. The first box represents verbalizing thought process, the second box represents guided practice, the third box represents mnumonic device-chant, and the fourth box represents tutoring other students. The colors of each level indicate the Zone of Proximal Development. Mary Lewis, Steve Ferguson and Willie Mazyck (2005). [/TD][/TR][/TABLE][BLOCKQUOTE][[URL=/epltt/index.php?title=Scaffolding&action=edit§ion=2]edit[/URL]][/BLOCKQUOTE][URL=Guests cannot see links in the messages. Please register to forum by clicking here to see links. to play a narrated PowerPoint presentation that summarizes the content in this page. This narrated presentation was created by Karen Garner, Shelby Day, and Suzanne Kiefer (Fall, 2007). [/TD][/TR][/TABLE][BLOCKQUOTE][[URL=/epltt/index.php?title=Scaffolding&action=edit§ion=6]edit[/URL]][/BLOCKQUOTE][URL= It is the teacher’s responsibility to establish the shared goal. However, the learner’s interests must be recruited or enlisted through the teacher’s ability to communicate with the learner and achieve intersubjectivity (sharing intentions, perceptions, feelings and conceptions) (Zhao & Orey, 1999). The teacher must do some pre-assessment of the student and the curriculum. Achievement of curriculum objectives is planned as the teacher considers the needs of each student. The teacher must be considerate of some of the unique, unusual, and often ineffective problem-solving techniques that children use. As discussed in the chapter on the Six C’s of motivation, allowing input from the student on the shared goal will enhance intrinsic motivation. It will also help control the frustration level of the learner as he or she will feel that their interests have been validated. It will assist the learner in establishing a desire to master the goal where success is contingent upon one’s own ability in developing new skills. In this manner, the process of learning itself is esteemed, and the attainment of mastery is seen as being directly correlated with the effort put forth.
[BLOCKQUOTE][[URL=/epltt/index.php?title=Scaffolding&action=edit§ion=7]edit[/URL]][/BLOCKQUOTE][URL= In the Whole Task Approach, the focus is on the overall goal to be attained throughout the entire process. Consequently, the task is learned as a whole instead of a set of individual sub-skills. Each feature of the lesson is learned as it relates to the whole task. This approach lessens the amount of passive knowledge on the part of the learner and the need for transfer is not as great. It must be noted that this approach is only effective if the learner does not experience extreme difficulty with any of the component skills needed to complete the whole task. Imagine how difficult it would be to scaffold a child in telling time if they could not identify the numbers 1 through 12.
[BLOCKQUOTE][[URL=/epltt/index.php?title=Scaffolding&action=edit§ion=8]edit[/URL]][/BLOCKQUOTE][URL= Frequent success is important in scaffolding especially in helping control frustration levels of the learner. Student successes may be experienced more often if the MKO provides assistance in a timely and effective manner so as to enable the learner to proceed with the task. These successes, in turn, help to increase motivation through a positive self-efficacy and make the learner’s time and effort more productive. This procedure directly corresponds to the first rule of scaffolding as defined by Zhao & Orey (1999), which is to assist the learner with those tasks he/she is not yet able to carry out on his/her own.
[BLOCKQUOTE][[URL=/epltt/index.php?title=Scaffolding&action=edit§ion=9]edit[/URL]][/BLOCKQUOTE][URL= It is central to the scaffolding process to supply assistance to the learner’s present focus, thereby helping the learner with his/her current difficulties. In providing this immediate help with the current task at hand, a more productive learning environment is fostered because information has been related and conferred according to the learner’s focus keeping the learner in pursuit of the task. However, it is often necessary to redirect the intentions of the learner if they do not represent an effective strategy for completing the task. The teacher or MKO must be cognizant that there are numerous ways of accomplishing a certain task. If the learner’s current path is effective, it should be accepted as it is the essence of scaffolding to help the learner proceed with the least amount of assistance as possible. If the MKO finds him/herself consistently helping a learner with low level intentions, it may be a good idea to turn to coaching as a strategy to help the learner progress. This is beneficial in that it helps the learner examine the task from a different perspective so as to encourage higher level thinking skills.
[BLOCKQUOTE][[URL=/epltt/index.php?title=Scaffolding&action=edit§ion=10]edit[/URL]][/BLOCKQUOTE][URL= What the learner is able to do should be matched with the level of assistance provided. The learner should be given just enough help to overcome the current obstacle, but the level of assistance should not hinder the learner from contributing and participating in the learning process of that particular task. In other words, the assistance should only attend to the areas of the task that he/she cannot accomplish on his/her own. No intervention should be made if the current task is within the learner’s capabilities. However, if the learner lacks the necessary skills, a demonstration is needed.
[BLOCKQUOTE][[URL=/epltt/index.php?title=Scaffolding&action=edit§ion=11]edit[/URL]][/BLOCKQUOTE][URL= An expert model can provide an explicit example of the task as the expert way of accomplishing the task. The techniques for accomplishing the task are clearly expressed. In an implicit demonstration, the information is outlined around the expert model.
[BLOCKQUOTE][[URL=/epltt/index.php?title=Scaffolding&action=edit§ion=12]edit[/URL]][/BLOCKQUOTE][URL= Lange (2002) states that based on the work of Hogan and Pressley (1997) there are five different methods in instructional scaffolding: modeling of desired behaviors, offering explanations, inviting students to participate, verifying and clarifying student understandings, and inviting students to contribute clues. These techniques are used to direct students toward self-regulation and independence.
The first step in instructional scaffolding is usually modeling. Lange (2002) cites Hogan and Pressley (1997) as defining modeling as, "teaching behavior that shows how one should feel, think or act within a given situation." There are three types of modeling. Think-aloud modeling gives auditory substance to the thought processes associated with a task. For example, a teacher might verbalize her thought processes for breaking an unfamiliar word down into its parts so that it can be read. Talk-aloud modeling involves verbalizing the thought process or problem solving strategy while demonstrating the task. An example would be a teacher verbally describing her thought processes as she demonstrates the correct way to subtract two digit numbers on the board. Lastly, there is performance modeling. Performance modeling requires no verbal instruction. For example, a baseball coach might show one of his players how to get under a ball to catch it (Lange, 2002).
As well as modeling, the instructor needs to offer explanations. These explanations should openly address the learner's comprehension about what is being learned, why and when it is used, and how it is used (Lange, 2002). At the beginning, explanations are detailed and comprehensive and repeated often. As the learner progresses in his knowledge, explanations may consist of only key words and prompts to help the learner remember important information. For example, when teaching children how to identify adjectives in a sentence, the teacher will need to lead the children through learning the detailed definition of an adjective in the beginning. The instructor may have to repeat or rephrase this thorough explanation many times during guided practice. As the students gain experience, the teacher might just prompt the students with words like “what kind”, “which one” and “how many.”
Lange (2002) next addresses inviting student participation, especially in the early stages of scaffolding. This technique will heighten student engagement and ownership in the learning process. It will also provide the instructor with an opportunity to emphasize or correct understandings of the task. This leads us to verifying and clarifying student understandings. As students become familiar with new material, it is key for the teacher to evaluate student understanding and provide positive and corrective feedback.
[BLOCKQUOTE][[URL=/epltt/index.php?title=Scaffolding&action=edit§ion=13]edit[/URL]][/BLOCKQUOTE][URL= Larkin (2002) suggests that teachers can follow a few effective techniques of scaffolding:
Begin by boosting confidence. Introduce students first to tasks they can perform with little or no assistance. This will improve self-efficacy. Provide enough assistance to allow students to achieve success quickly. This will help lower frustration levels and ensure that students remain motivated to advance to the next step. This will also help guard against students giving up due to repeated failures. Help students “fit in.” Students may actually work harder if they feel as if they resemble their peers. Avoid boredom. Once a skill is learned, don’t overwork it. Look for clues that the learner is mastering the task. Scaffolding should be removed gradually and then removed completely when mastery of the task is demonstrated.
[BLOCKQUOTE][[URL=/epltt/index.php?title=Scaffolding&action=edit§ion=14]edit[/URL]][/BLOCKQUOTE][URL= Scaffolding is used in a very wide range of situations. Mothers naturally employ this approach as they teach their children how to live in and enjoy their world. Teachers, from Pre-K to Adult Education appreciate the necessity and increased learning afforded by the use of these techniques. Non-traditional educational settings, such as business training scenarios and athletic teams, also use these methods to assure the success of their employees and/or members. Teachers and trainers can even use the techniques and strategies of scaffolding without even knowing the name of this useful method. It is a very natural approach to ensure the learning of the student.
[BLOCKQUOTE][[URL=/epltt/index.php?title=Scaffolding&action=edit§ion=15]edit[/URL]][/BLOCKQUOTE][URL= Morelock, Brown and Morrissey (2003) noted in their study that mothers adapt their scaffolding to the perceived abilities of their children. The mothers scaffold interactions at play by modeling or prompting behaviors which they see demonstrated by their child or just beyond the level demonstrated. For instance, the very young child is playing with blocks by stacking them on top of each other. The mother attracts the child’s attention and models how to “build” a wall or bridge by stacking them in a different way and using a toy person or truck to climb the wall or ride over the bridge. She then watches and assists as needed until the child appropriates the skill or loses interest and moves on to something else. She will try again the next time the child is playing with the blocks or try another construction which she feels will be more attractive to the child.
The study further suggested that the mother will adapt her scaffolding behavior to the needs of her child. If she sees that the child is imaginative and creative, she will then scaffold beyond the apparent skill level exhibited. Conversely, if she perceives that the child is less attentive or exhibits behaviors which are not easy to decipher, she will then demonstrate new skills instead of extensions to the skills already present. The authors suggest that this could be a possible early indicator for giftedness.
[BLOCKQUOTE][[URL=/epltt/index.php?title=Scaffolding&action=edit§ion=16]edit[/URL]][/BLOCKQUOTE][URL= An elementary math teacher is introducing the addition of two digit numbers. She first solicits the students’ interest by using a “hook” such as an interesting story or situation. Then she reduces the number of steps for initial success by modeling, verbally talking through the steps as she works and allowing the students to work with her on the sample problems. An overhead projector is a great tool for this activity because the teacher is able to face the class while she works the problems. She can then pick up non-verbal cues from the class as she works. The students' interest is held by asking them to supply two digit numbers for addition, playing "Stump the Teacher". She takes this opportunity for further modeling of the skills and verbally presenting the process as she works through these problems.
The students are then allowed to work several problems independently as the teacher watches and provides assistance where needed. The success rate is increased by providing these incremental opportunities for success. Some students may require manipulatives to solve the problems and some may require further “talking through” the procedures. These strategies may be applied individually or in small groups.
More challenging problems can then be added to the lesson. Further explicit modeling and verbalization will be required. Some students will be able to work independently while some will require more assistance and scaffolding. She will begin to fade the scaffolding as soon as she is sure that the students can effectively function alone.
[BLOCKQUOTE][[URL=/epltt/index.php?title=Scaffolding&action=edit§ion=17]edit[/URL]][/BLOCKQUOTE][URL= Banaszynski (2000) provides another example of instructional scaffolding in his article about a project in which a group of eighth-grade history students in Wisconsin examined the Revolutionary War from two points of view—American and British. He began by guiding his students as they undertook a sequential series of activities in order to thoroughly investigate the opposing reactions to causes of the war. Then students contributed to a class timeline which detailed causes, actions and reactions. Banaszynski describes how work continued:
“ After the timeline was completed, the students were arranged in groups, and each group did a critical analysis of primary-source material, focusing on the efforts each side made to avoid the war. This started students thinking about what the issues were and how each side handled them. The next step was to ask a question: Did the colonists have legitimate reasons for going to war against Great Britain? asked each group to choose either the Patriot or Loyalist position and spend a day searching the Internet for primary sources and other materials to support their positions.”
The instructor continued scaffolding by interviewing the groups to probe for misconceptions, need for redirection, or re-teaching. Students later compared research and wrote essays that were analyzed and evaluated by fellow students using rubrics; groups then composed essays that included the strongest arguments from the individual works. The project, Banaszynski says, was an enormous success; students began the unit working as individuals reliant upon him for instruction. As work proceeded, the feedback framework was altered so that students were guiding each other and, in turn, themselves. Banaszynski’s role in guiding the research and leading the reporting activities faded as the project continued and requirements became more complicated. As a result, students were able to appreciate their mastery of both materials and skills.
[BLOCKQUOTE][[URL=/epltt/index.php?title=Scaffolding&action=edit§ion=18]edit[/URL]][/BLOCKQUOTE][URL= Kao, Lehman, & Cennamo (1996) postulated that scaffolds could be embedded in hypermedia or multimedia software to provide students with support while using the software. They realized that soft scaffolds are dynamic, situation-specific aids provided by a teacher or peer while hard scaffolds are static and specific. Thus, hard scaffolds can be anticipated and planned based on typical student difficulties with a task. With these two aspects in mind, they developed a piece of software called “Decision Point” and tested it with a group of students.
They embedded three types of hard scaffolds: conceptual scaffolds, specific strategic scaffolds, and procedural scaffolds. The conceptual scaffolds assisted the students in organizing their ideas and connecting them to related information. The specific strategic scaffolds were included to help the students ask more specific questions and the procedural scaffolds were useful to clarify specific tasks such as presentations. Examples of these types of embedded scaffolds include: interactive essays, recommended documents, student guides, student journal, and storyboard templates.
This type of software would be very useful in higher education and adult learning because it is portable, could be used asynchronously, and allows the learners more independence. One or two initial face-to-face sessions would be required to teach the basics, establish learning communities and relate the class expectations and timeline. The students could then proceed at their pace while working within the framework of their group and the class expectations. The instructor would provide feedback to groups and individuals, be available for assistance and scaffold specific students at their point of need.
If software with built in scaffolds is not available, then the instructor could provide a similar environment by having an open classroom in which the students are provided with the expectations and a timeline at the onset. They may then choose to attend face-to-face classes, work independently, or work in groups. The more knowledgeable students, as well as the instructor, could then provide scaffolding in and out of the classroom. The hard scaffolds could be provided with textbooks and references and links on the class website. The instructor would still provide feedback on assignments and class work, be available for assistance, and scaffold specific individuals or groups at their point of need.
Appropriately, more responsibility is placed on the adult learner. Motivation comes from within and is based on the learner’s goals and objectives such as advanced degrees, career opportunities, and increased pay. Ultimately, the learner assumes a dual role in that they are students and peer instructors as they scaffold their classmates.
[BLOCKQUOTE][[URL=/epltt/index.php?title=Scaffolding&action=edit§ion=19]edit[/URL]][/BLOCKQUOTE][URL= Diane Wilder (2003) wrote about an open-ended form of dance creation experience that was presented at the founding community dance conference “Moving On 2000” in Sydney, Australia. The first workshop participants created a piece based on their collaborative efforts in “inviting and layering ideas, making and linking connections, interplay of relationships, and harnessing the collective wisdom”. The dancers then re-grouped for successive workshops within the conference structure.
In each re-grouping, the attendees taught, scaffolded, and collaborated with one another to further the dance piece. If someone did not understand the layer that was created at a previous workshop, the participants familiar with that sequence would then scaffold by first checking for prior knowledge. Then, they would model the dance sequence and have their fellow learners follow along. This step would be repeated several times, then the “instructors” would step back to watch. Interventions would take place when appropriate until the novices had mastered the sequence.
Scaffolding would then fade as the participants began to extend the creation of the dance with sequences of their own. The beauty of this type of scaffolding at a conference is that everyone would have the opportunity to either provide scaffolding or to be the recipient of the scaffolding. As the participants went on to successive workshops, new groups were formed with different sets of prior knowledge. The task was then to build upon that knowledge base by collaborating to learn new sequences and then expand upon that base by adding another set of dance elements.
[BLOCKQUOTE][[URL=/epltt/index.php?title=Scaffolding&action=edit§ion=20]edit[/URL]][/BLOCKQUOTE][URL= Mr. Longstreet is the trainer for High Point National Bank. His responsibilities include training new cashiers as well as updating all employees on technology upgrades and new programs. As new employees enter the business, he contacts them to set up a training schedule. Each new employee is provided with a manual, a CDRom of the introductory presentation, and a mentor.
Mr. Longstreet begins the training program with a tour of the bank’s facilities. He is careful to mention and point out the placement and uses of the equipment for which the new employees will be responsible. Next, they meet for a face-to-face orientation presentation. He provides an overview of the manual by using Power Point and a projector. The employees are encouraged to mark any portions of the manual with which they feel uncomfortable and note questions in the margin.
The mentors then take over and the new employees spend several hours shadowing them to gain insight into operations and have a chance to ask questions. The mentors assess their protégés during this process in order to provide feedback to the trainer about gaps in their knowledge or specific problem areas.
The third session is held in the computer lab at the main office. The cashiers-in-training are instructed in a hands-on work session using the actual programs and real life scenarios included in the manual’s appendix. The trainer is able to scaffold each individual at their point of need based on his own observations as well as the information provided to him by the mentors. The learners continue to work through the scenarios at their own pace while the trainer circulates through the lab modeling, questioning or providing feedback as needed.
Now the new cashiers are ready to work in tandem with their mentor. They first watch the mentor and answer questions, and then they are given the responsibility of handling transactions while the mentor takes the backseat. They are in charge, but the mentor is right there to intervene in case of a lapse in memory or a new situation. Fading begins and new scaffolding opportunities are encountered as the zone of proximal development expands with the new cashiers’ acquired knowledge and skills.
Finally, the cashiers are ready to function on their own. The mentor will continue to periodically contact and question the cashier as well as be available for comments and questions that may arise during the workday. The trainer will hold his final follow-up session in about two weeks to update the new cashiers on any recent changes, allow time for questions, and assess the learners with a final scenario.
[BLOCKQUOTE][[URL=/epltt/index.php?title=Scaffolding&action=edit§ion=21]edit[/URL]][/BLOCKQUOTE][URL= As with any other learning theory or strategy, there are challenges and benefits to scaffolding. Understanding and comparing both will assist the educational professional or trainer in their assessment of the usefulness of the strategies and techniques as well as allow for comprehensive planning before implementation. The challenges are real but can be overcome with careful planning and preparation.
Challenges:

• Very time consuming
• Lack of sufficient personnel
• Potential for misjudging the zone of proximal development; success hinges on identifying the area that is just beyond but not too far beyond students’ abilities
• Inadequately modeling the desired behaviors, strategies or activities because the teacher has not fully considered the individual student’s needs, predilections, interests, and abilities (such as not showing a student how to “double click” on an icon when using a computer)
• Full benefits not seen unless the instructors are properly trained
• Requires the teacher to give up control as fading occurs
• Lack of specific examples and tips in teacher’s editions of textbooks

When assessing the benefits of scaffolding, it is necessary to consider the context in which you wish to implement the strategies and techniques. Additionally, you must know the learners and evaluate their particular needs first.
Benefits:

• Possible early identifier of giftedness
• Provides individualized instruction
• Greater assurance of the learner acquiring the desired skill, knowledge or ability
• Provides differentiated instruction
• Delivers efficiency – Since the work is structured, focused, and glitches have been reduced or eliminated prior to initiation, time on task is increased and efficiency in completing the activity is increased.
• Creates momentum – Through the structure provided by scaffolding, students spend less time searching and more time on learning and discovering resulting in quicker learning
• Engages the learner
• Motivates the learner to learn
• Minimizes the level of frustration for the learner

[BLOCKQUOTE][[URL=/epltt/index.php?title=Scaffolding&action=edit§ion=22]edit[/URL]][/BLOCKQUOTE][URL= Another major benefit of scaffolding is that it supports the ten principles of effective teaching highlighted in Ellis, Worthington and Larkin’s (n.d.) Executive Summary of the Research Synthesis on Effective Teaching Principles and the Design of Quality Tools for Educators. These ten principles are:
Principle 1: Students learn more when they are engaged actively during an instructional task.
Principle 2: High and moderate success rates are correlated positively with student learning outcomes, and low success rates are correlated negatively with student learning outcomes.
Principle 3: Increased opportunity to learn content is correlated positively with increased student achievement. Therefore, the more content covered, the greater the potential for student learning.
Principle 4: Students achieve more in classes in which they spend much of their time being directly taught or supervised by their teacher.
Principle 5: Students can become independent, self-regulated learners through instruction that is deliberately and carefully scaffolded.
Principle 6: The critical forms of knowledge associated with strategic learning are (a) declarative knowledge, (b) procedural knowledge, and © conditional knowledge. Each of these must be addressed if students are to become independent, self-regulated learners.
Principle 7: Learning is increased when teaching is presented in a manner that assists students in organizing, storing, and retrieving knowledge.
Principle 8: Students can become more independent, self-regulated learners through strategic instruction.
Principle 9: Students can become independent, self-regulated learners through instruction that is explicit.
Principle 10: By teaching sameness both within and across subjects, teachers promote the ability of students to access potentially relevant knowledge in novel problem-solving situations.
Each one of these principles can be supported (see red highlights) with the use of scaffolding. In our efforts to provide the best educational opportunities for all of our students, we must continue to research and test cutting-edge strategies and techniques while employing the tried and true methods of effective practice.
[BLOCKQUOTE][[URL=/epltt/index.php?title=Scaffolding&action=edit§ion=23]edit[/URL]][/BLOCKQUOTE][URL= Applebee, A.N., & Langer, J. (1983). Instructional scaffolding: Reading and writing as natural language activities. [I]Language Arts, 60(2), 168-175.
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Ellis, E. (1994). Effective teaching principles and the design of quality tools for educators. Retrieved March 15, 2004, from Guests cannot see links in the messages. Please register to forum by clicking here to see links..
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Larkin, M. (2002). Using scaffolded instruction to optimize learning. Arlington, VA: ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education. (Retrieved September 25, 2007 from ERIC at EBSCOhost, ERIC No. ED. 474 301).
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Wilder, D. L. (2003). Community dance: Navigating the possible. Australian Dance Council. Retrieved March 31, 2004 from Guests cannot see links in the messages. Please register to forum by clicking here to see links..
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[BLOCKQUOTE][[URL=/epltt/index.php?title=Scaffolding&action=edit§ion=24]edit[/URL]][/BLOCKQUOTE][URL= APA Citation: Lipscomb, L., Swanson, J., West, A. (2004). Scaffolding. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved , from Guests cannot see links in the messages. Please register to forum by clicking here to see links.