I have a homewok.I need
*linkers of contrast:however/altough/even though/in spite of/despite
*modal verbs of deduction
powerpoint presentation

Grammar
Verbs Modal verbs (degrees of certainty)

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As Swan (Practical English Usage (Oxford University Press, 1997)), explains:
"One (of the meanings of modal verbs) is to do with degrees of certainty: modal verbs can be used to say for instance that a situation is certain, probable, possible or impossible. "
p. 334
Modal verbs can be used to express these ideas about the past, present and future.
The most definite degree of certainty can be expressed with will and won't, followed by must and can't/couldn't, should and shouldn't, may and may not, and might/could and mightn't, which express the least definite degree of certainty.
(1) Present/Future
When we believe that a future state or event is certain to occur, we use will or won't:

• 
  I'll be working on this report all afternoon.
  
• 
  We won't be back in until tomorrow.
  

When we deduce that a future state or event is the most logical or rational outcome, we use must or can't/couldn't:

• 
  You must be joking! That's just totally illogical!
  
• 
  You can't be serious! That's just totally illogical!
  
• 
  He couldn't be there now, surely. He always leaves at 4.30.
  

When we want something to happen, and it is reasonable to expect it to, we use should or shouldn't:

• 
  We should be able to go to Spain next holidays if we keep saving at this rate.
  
• 
  It shouldn't take us long to clean up this mess if we all help.
  

When we wish to express the something will possibly happen, we use may or may not:

• 
  We may go to the party - we haven't quite decided yet.
  
• 
  You may not be able to get in if you turn up at the last minute.
  

When we want to express that something will possibly happen, but we are less certain, we use might/could or mightn't:

• 
  He might be at home, but he usually goes shopping on Saturday morning.
  
• 
  He could be at home, but he usually goes shopping on Saturday morning.
  
• 
  She mightn't be able to come - her mother's very ill.
  

Note that couldn't is not used in this way, but rather expresses a greater degree of certainty (see must or can't/couldn't above).
(2) Past
All of these modal verbs can also be used to talk about degrees of certainty in the past. Once more, will or won't expresses the most certainty, and might/could or mightn't the least certainty.

• 
  That will have been Ted you saw - he's seven feet tall.
  
• 
  It won't have been Sue you saw - she's blonde and is five feet tall.
  

Notice that would and wouldn't can be used in the same way as will and would here:

• 
  That would have been Ted you saw - he's seven feet tall.
  
• 
  It wouldn't have been Sue you saw - she's blonde and is five feet tall.
  
  
  
• 
  That must have been fun - you love dancing, don't you?
  
• 
  It can't/couldn't have been much fun out on the boat - there were gale-force wind, I hear. (See [URL=http://www.learnenglish.org.uk/grammar/definitions/modals.htm]grammar definitions).
  
  
  
• 
  Where can they be? They should have been here a long time ago.
  
• 
  Where can they be? They shouldn't have taken this long.
  
  
  
• 
  She may have dropped by - we were out all morning.
  
• 
  She may not have been able to see properly in the heavy rain.
  
  
  
• 
  He might have had an accident!
  
• 
  She mightn't have even known we were going to be here.
  

Exercises on modal verbs for deduction:
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Modal Verb Tutorial
Modals are special verbs which behave very irregularly in English. Englishpage.com has created one of the most in-depth modal tutorials in print or online. Study the modal explanations and complete the associated exercises and take another step toward English fluency. If you want to use the Modal Verb Tutorial as a reference only and do not want to complete the tutorial [Englishpractise.NET] Guest users may not see the links,So you need toRegister or Login
.
The tutorial should be completed as follows:
1. Read this introduction page including the section below titled "What are Modal Verbs?"
2. Complete the exercises below. After each exercise, we have listed the modals covered. Just click on the modal link to learn more about its use.

EXERCISES	TOPICS COVERED
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What are Modal Verbs?
Modal verbs are special verbs which behave very differently from normal verbs. Here are some important differences:
1. Modal verbs do not take "-s" in the third person.
Examples:

• He can speak Chinese.
• She should be here by 9:00.

2. You use "not" to make modal verbs negative, even in Simple Present and Simple Past.
Examples:

• He should not be late.
• They might not come to the party.

3. Many modal verbs cannot be used in the past tenses or the future tenses.
Examples:

• He will can go with us. Not Correct
• She musted study very hard. Not Correct

Common Modal Verbs

Can Could May Might Must

Ought to Shall Should Will Would

For the purposes of this tutorial, we have included some expressions which are not modal verbs including had better, have to, and have got to. These expressions are closely related to modals in meaning and are often interchanged with them.

Words
and phrases that help you link your ideas togetherA list of
linking

wordsFunctionIn the middle of a sentenceAt the beginning a new sentenceTo add a pointTo contrast two pointsTo illustrate, or to give an exampleTo move on to the next pointTo note consequencesTo summarise or concludeAt the start of the first sentence in the paragraph

... and ...	Also... In addition, ... Similarly, ... Not only did ..., but ... also Moreover, ... Furthermore, ...
... but ... ..., although ... ... on the other hand , ...	However, ... Although ... On the other hand ... ; Yet, ... Nevertheless, ... In contrast, ...
..., for example, ... ...; that is, ... ..., namely, ... ..., clearly ...	An example of ... Clearly, ...
	Then, ... After this / that ... Subsequently, ...
... because ... ... as ... ... since ... ... despite ...	So, ... Therefore, ... As a result, ... Consequently, ... Despite ...
	Finally, ... In conclusion, ... To conclude, ... To summarise, ... In sum, ...
	Firstly, ... Secondly, ... Finally, ... The first point to note is ...; The second point to note is ...; The next point to note is ...;

Linking words are essential for your writing to be natural and clear.fficeffice" />

Linking devices vary in three ways:

1. Position in the text.

Some linking words normally form a link between clauses WITHIN a sentence. It is bad style to start a sentence with these words:

and but so because then until such as

are examples of this type of linking word.

Another type of linking device is used to form a link BETWEEN sentences. These words must start with a capital letter and are usually immediately followed by a comma:

Furthermore, Moreover, However, Nevertheless, Therefore, In conclusion,

are used in this way.

Most linking words, however, can either start a sentence or form a link between sentences. The choice is up to the writer.

2. The function of linking words

Linking devices are neither nouns, nor verbs. They provide a text with cohesion and illustrate how the parts of the text relate to each other. Here are some of the functions which linking words provide.

Adding extra information to the main point, contrasting ideas, expressing cause and effect, showing exactly when something happened (narrating), expressing purpose (why?) and opinion, listing examples, making conclusions and giving emphasis.

3. Grammatical differences

Some linking words must be followed by a clause (Subject + Verb + Object).

Eg. while why because although so whereas when

Other linking words should be followed by a noun phrase (Linking word + (the) + Noun/Pronoun or gerund)

Eg. because of despite during in spite of

The majority of linking devices can be followed by either a noun phrase or a clause.

Here is a list of the principal linking words in English, their function and if their position is usually fixed.

[CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]Linking words - by Viv Quarry[/CENTER ALIGN]

[CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]Adding and [/CENTER ALIGN]	[CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]Contrasting[/CENTER ALIGN]	[CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]Expressing cause / reason[/CENTER ALIGN]
[CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]*and[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]as well as[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]besides[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]Moreover,[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]Furthermore,[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]What is more,[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]In addition,[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]not only .... but also[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]another point is that[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER] [/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]relative clauses[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]who where[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]that ,which[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]whose to whom[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]when what[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]why[/CENTER ALIGN]	[CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]*but[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]However,[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]Although[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]despite[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]In spite of[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]Nevertheless,[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]On the contrary,[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]on the one hand[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]on the other hand,[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]whereas[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]while[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]but while[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]For one thing,[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]In contrast,[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]Neither...nor[/CENTER ALIGN]	[CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]because[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]as[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]since[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]As a result,[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]This is why[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]because of[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]Due to[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]Owing to [/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]For this reason,[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER] [/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]Expressing effect / result[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]*so[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]so....that[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]such a...that[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]Therefore[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]Thus[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]Consequently,[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]too...for/to[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]not enough...for/to[/CENTER ALIGN]
[CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]Narration[/CENTER ALIGN]	[CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]Expressing purpose[/CENTER ALIGN]
[CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]First (of all)[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]At first[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]At the beginning[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]In the beginning[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]then[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]next[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]Before[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]After[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]After that[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]afterwards[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]When[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]While[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]during[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]Soon[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]prior to[/CENTER ALIGN]	[CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]immediately[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]Once[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]Suddenly[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]As soon as[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]on[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]No sooner....than[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]Hardly...when[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]Finally[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]Eventually[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]At the end[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]In the end[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]At last[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]To begin with,[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]until[/CENTER ALIGN]	[CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]to[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]so as to[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]in order that[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]so that[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]for (Non-specific)[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER] [/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]Expressing opinion[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]I would say that[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]In my opinion,[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]I think (that)[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]I believe (that)[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]Personally[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]Apparently,[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER] [/CENTER ALIGN]
[CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]Giving examples[/CENTER ALIGN]	[CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]Summing up / concluding[/CENTER ALIGN]	[CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]Emphasis[/CENTER ALIGN]
[CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]for example,[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]for instance,[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]this includes[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]such as eg. (for example)[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]i.e. (that is)[/CENTER ALIGN]	[CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]All in all[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]overall[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]generally[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]In conclusion,[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]on the whole[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]in the main[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]To sum up,[/CENTER ALIGN]	[CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]especially[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]particularly[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]Naturally,[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]exactly because[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]above all[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]Whatever[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]Whenever[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]too / enough[/CENTER ALIGN] [CENTER ALIGN=CENTER]The more ....[/CENTER ALIGN]

* Avoid starting a sentence with these words.
The linking words beginning with a capital letter often start a sentence, For those without, position in a sentence is optional.


Linking words - Difficult cases

So

AVOID STARTING A SENTENCE WITH THIS WORD!

'So' can be used in two ways:

1. To show RESULT.

Eg. It was raining, so we decided not to go to the beach.

NOTE! 'because' shows the REASON. The above sentence could be expressed like this:

Eg. We decided not to go to the beach because it was raining.

NOTE! To show a REASON LINK BETWEEN SENTENCES use 'Therefore,'.

2. So & such used for EMPHASIS.

When used for emphasis, 'So' must be followed by either an adjective or an adverb and must be linked to an explanation CLAUSE.

Eg. It was so hot that we decided not to go to the beach.

OR We decided not to go to the beach because it was so hot.

NOTE! 'such' is used in the same way, but must be followed by a NOUN or ADJECTIVE+NOUN.

Eg. It was such a hot day that we decided not to go to the beach.

OR We decided not to go to the beach because it was such a hot day.

NOTE! When there is no explanation clause, use 'VERY', unless referring to a present situation.

Eg. It was very hot yesterday, wasn't it? It's so nice to see you again!

Enough and too

'enough' goes AFTER ADJECTIVES & ADVERBS but BEFORE NOUNS.

Eg. You won't pass the exam if you don't work hard enough.

OR He didn't get the job because he didn't have enough experience.

'enough' can also be used alone.

Eg. I'll lend you some money if you haven't got enough.

'too' means 'more than necessary' and comes BEFORE ADJECTIVES & ADVERBS ONLY.

Eg. The coffee was too hot to drink.

But and However,

'but' is used to CONTRAST clauses WITHIN A SENTENCE.

Eg. I like going to the beach, but I never go at midday.

'However,' has the same function, but is used to show CONTRAST BETWEEN SENTENCES.

Eg. I've always enjoyed going to the beach. However, I never go there at midday.

Although, though, even though & In spite of / despite,

'Although' must join two clauses, but it's position can change. It can either start a sentence or come in the middle.

Eg. Although it rained a lot, we enjoyed the holiday.
OR We enjoyed the holiday although it rained a lot.

In spoken English 'though' can be used instead of 'although' when it is used for the second clause.

Eg. "I didn't get the job though I had all the necessary qualifications."

'though' can also come at the end of a sentence.

Eg. "The house isn't very nice. I like the garden though."

'Even though' is a stronger form of 'although'.

Eg. Even though I was really tired, I couldn't sleep.

'In spite of' or 'Despite' must be followed by a NOUN, PRONOUN (this, that, what etc.) or ~ING.

Eg. In spite of the rain, we went to the beach.
OR We went to the beach in spite of the rain.

It is common to use the expression 'In spite of the fact (that)....' or 'Despite the fact (that)....'
Eg. She's quite fit in spite of the fact that she smokes 40 cigarettes a day.

Linking words of time - Still, yet and already

'Still' tells us that an action is continuing, or hasn't happened yet. It has positive, negative and question forms.

Eg. It's 10 o'clock and John's still in bed.
or She said that she would be here an hour ago and she still hasn't come.
or Are you still living in Botofogo?

'yet' asks if something has happened, or to say that something hasn't happened. It is mainly used in NEGATIVES & QUESTIONS and comes at the end of a sentence. 'Yet' is usually used with the present perfect tense.

Eg. He hasn't finished the report yet.
OR Is dinner ready yet?
'Already' is used to say that something happened before expected, it usually comes in middle position, but can also come in final position. 'Already' is not used in negatives and in British English is only used in questions to show considerable surprise.

Eg. I'll tell her that dinner is ready.
She already knows.


Have you finished already?! I thought it would take you longer!


In order to understand this type of linking word, you must be clear about the concepts of 'a point in time' and 'a period of time'. A point in time is the answer to a 'when' question, and a period of time is the answer to a 'how long' question.

Eg. Points of time = 6pm, Wednesday, she arrived, summer, 1999, Christmas, five minutes ago.
Periods of time = 3 seconds, 4 days, ages, 100 years, the Christmas holiday, five minutes.

During and while

Both 'during' and 'while' tell us WHEN something happened. The difference between them is that 'during' is followed by a noun phrase (no verb), and 'while' is followed by a clause (subject + verb + object).

Eg. When did you go to Barcelona?

I went there during my holiday in Europe.
OR
I went there while I was on holiday in Europe.

'By' means 'at some time before' and tells us when something happens. It is followed by point in time and can be used for both past and future time.

Eg. This report must be finished by 6pm.

'By the time' has the same meaning but is followed by a clause. It is common with perfect tenses.

Eg. By the time we get there the party will have finished.

For, since and until

These words all tell us how long something happens. 'For' focuses on duration and can be used in most tenses. It is followed by a period of time.
'Since' is only used with perfect tenses and must be followed by a point in time.

Eg. They stayed in Barcelona for two weeks.

OR They've been in Barcelona since last Friday. = They are still in Barcelona now.

'Until' also tells us how long something happens, but the focus is on the end of the action or situation. It is followed by a point in time.

Eg. They stayed in Barcelona until last Friday. = They left Barcelona last Friday.


Not....any more/longer and no longer

These expressions tell us that a situation has changed. 'not....any more/longer' go at the end of a sentence and 'no longer' is used in the middle of a sentence.

Eg. Mr. Jones doesn't work here any longer. OR She no longer works here.

As & like

'As' and 'like' can be used in COMPARISONS.

However, 'As' MUST BE FOLLOWED BY A CLAUSE, and 'like' MUST BE FOLLOWED BY A NOUN.

Eg. He worked for the company, as his father had done before him.
OR She acts like a child sometimes.

'As' can also be followed by a preposition

Eg. In 1998, as in 1997, inflation in Brazil fell steadily.

'(not) as....as ' + ADJECTIVE or ADVERB shows EQUALITY or INEQUALITY.

Eg. She isn't as tall as her father was. OR The traffic can be as bad in Rio as it is in São Paulo.

'As' can be used to state the ROLE, JOB or FUNCTION of a person or thing.

Eg. We all worked together as a team. OR She worked as a manager in the Human Resources Department. OR He used his handkerchief as a flag to attract attention.

'As' can be used in the same way as 'because'; however, it gives less emphasis than 'because'.

Eg. As the weather was so bad, we didn't go to the beach.
OR I bought her some flowers as she had been so kind to me.

'As' tells us that actions occur at the same time.

Eg. As the door opened, she saw him standing by the wall.

'As' is often used in these common expressions:

As hard as, as soon as, as long as, as well as, as far as, as good as.

Eg. He can stay here as far as I'm concerned. You can go as long as you come home early.

'As' is also the preposition used after these verbs:

Regarded as see sth. as be thought of as Be looked on as.

Linking words and phrases